Results do not necessarily reflect official DHS opinion or policy
The results presented in this report do not necessarily reflect official DHS opinion or policy.
NCIER®
Statement claims
Every claim in the map classified as statement, in report order.
Claims
To use AEP data or read related AEP publications, email aep@rand.org or visit www.rand.org/aep
If you are interested in using AEP data for your own surveys or analysis or in reading other publications related to the AEP, please email aep@rand.org or visit www.rand.org/aep.
Primary goal: use a nationally representative sample of administrators to understand BTAM implementa
Therefore, the primary goal of this report is to draw on a nationally representative sample of school administrators to understand how BTAM is being implemented and operationalized across the country.
Schools should focus on refining practices and sustaining programs
Schools should focus on refining practices and sustaining programs, with ongoing support as needed to institutionalize best practices and build long-term capacity.
Greater coherence and guidance are needed to ensure fidelity while allowing local adaptation
Greater coherence and guidance are needed to ensure fidelity to evidence-based frameworks while allowing for local adaptation.
Addressing training disparities with additional funding and support is essential
Addressing these disparities with additional funding and support is essential for effective violence prevention.
Clearer guidance and best practices are needed for effective and fair interventions
Clearer guidance and best practices are needed to ensure that interventions are implemented effectively and fairly across schools.
Multiple robust feedback mechanisms are needed
Multiple robust feedback mechanisms are needed to ensure that programs achieve intended outcomes and continue to improve.
Schools and agencies should prioritize evidence-based frameworks, standardized procedures and robust
To fully realize the potential of BTAM as a cornerstone of school safety, schools and supporting agencies should prioritize the development and dissemination of evidence-based frameworks, standardized procedures, and robust training opportunities—while maintaining the flexibility needed to adapt to local contexts.
Continuous improvement and access to resources and training will be essential
Strengthening continuous improvement processes and ensuring access to resources and training will be essential for institutionalizing best practices, enhancing program fidelity, and safeguarding the well-being of all students.
BTAM aims to identify concerning behavior early so schools respond proportionately
The BTAM approach aims to identify concerning behavior early, enabling schools to respond proportionately and provide support where needed.
Footnote 1: the report focuses on BTAM implementation at school and district level
In this report, we focus on BTAM implementation at the level of K–12 schools and school districts.
Figure 1.1 note: principals asked about a BTAM team or other formal group to identify at-risk studen
NOTE: Both data collections asked principals whether their school had a behavioral threat assessment team or “any other formal group of persons to identify students who might be a potential risk for violent or harmful behavior (toward themselves or others).”
Footnote continued: the report does not review how federal law or policy might affect BTAM
include a review of how federal law or policy, or any changes therein, might affect BTAM implementation at K–12 schools.
Primary goal: use a nationally representative sample of school administrators to understand BTAM imp
Therefore, the primary goal of this report is to draw on a nationally representative sample of school administrators to understand how BTAM is being implemented and operationalized across the country.
The report aims to answer 12 questions about BTAM in K–12 public schools as of 2024–2025
More specifically, we aim to answer 12 questions about the state of BTAM in K–12 public schools as of the 2024–2025 school year:
Research question 1: What schools have implemented BTAM?
What schools have implemented BTAM?
Research question 2: When did schools establish BTAM teams?
When did schools establish BTAM teams?
Research question 3: What is the scope of schools’ BTAM programs?
What is the scope of schools’ BTAM programs?
Research question 4: How are schools operationalizing BTAM?
How are schools operationalizing BTAM?
Research question 5: Do schools use named BTAM models, to what extent do they modify them, or are th
Do schools use named BTAM models, to what extent do they modify them, or are they building their own models?
Research question 6: Why did schools adopt specific BTAM models (or develop their own), and how did
Why did schools adopt specific BTAM models (or develop their own), and how did they go about it?
Research question 7: How do BTAM teams assess level of risk for referred cases?
How do BTAM teams assess level of risk for referred cases?
Research question 8: How do BTAM teams develop intervention plans for at-risk students, and what do
How do BTAM teams develop intervention plans for at-risk students, and what do these plans look like?
Research question 9: How do BTAM teams monitor intervention plans?
How do BTAM teams monitor intervention plans?
Research question 10: Is BTAM working as intended?
Is BTAM working as intended?
Research question 11: What do principals think are the effects of their BTAM programs?
What do principals think are the effects of their BTAM programs?
Research question 12: What do principals think about sustaining and improving their BTAM programs ov
What do principals think about sustaining and improving their BTAM programs over time?
Principals are assumed to have responded on behalf of their schools
Although survey invitations were directed solely to school principals, we assume that these principals responded to our survey on behalf of their schools and interpret their data accordingly.
Footnote 6: 2019 compilation was the most up-to-date comprehensive source on BTAM requirements
The 2019 compilation of law and policy was the most up-to-date source of comprehensive information on BTAM requirements nationally at the time of survey sampling and planning.
Footnote 3: Appendix A lists all survey items and response frequencies
A complete list of the survey items administered to principals and the response frequencies is available in Appendix A.
2019 data used as a reference point for the existing BTAM implementation landscape
We used the 2019 data as a reference point for understanding the existing BTAM implementation landscape as reported through the eyes of our survey respondents.
Authors considered whether program aspects such as team size or school versus district housing matte
We also considered to what extent certain aspects of a BTAM program (e.g., the number of people on a BTAM team, whether BTAM is housed at the school or district level) matter for its operations.
Subgroup differences presented only where notable, interesting, or helpful context
As it is infeasible to consider all subgroup differences for all survey items in this report, we present subgroup differences in the text where they were particularly notable or interesting and where they provide helpful context to understand national patterns.
Only subgroup differences statistically significant at p < 0.05 are called out in the text
Unless otherwise noted, we only call out subgroup differences in the text that are statistically significant at the p < 0.05 level.
Authors hope findings shed new light on how BTAM is being implemented in K–12 schools
We hope the findings presented in this report will shed new light on how BTAM is being implemented in K–12 schools through a much-needed, deeper understanding of nationally representative trends.
Third limitation: report does not fully explore state policy details or give an up-to-date state ana
Moreover, although the report highlights high-level differences in state-level policies and context specific to BTAM, it does not fully explore the details of such policies
Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 24 part and the sentence continues on page 25. Full sentence (pages 24–25): “Moreover, although the report highlights high-level differences in state-level policies and context specific to BTAM, it does not fully explore the details of such policies and does not provide an up-to-date analysis of state policies as of this report’s publication date.”
Authors hope findings provoke ideas to better ensure student and school-community safety
We also hope that our findings provoke new ideas about how to better ensure the safety and well-being of individual students and entire school communities across the country.
Final limitation: the survey is a snapshot in time and does not reflect change or recent events
Finally, our survey about BTAM practices provides a snapshot of perceptions and practices at a specific point in time and reflects neither changes over time nor how recent events might affect these perceptions and practices.
The report has 12 main chapters, each corresponding to one of the research questions
This report is organized such that each of its 12 main chapters corresponds to one of the research questions listed above.
Chapter 11 examines principals' responses to hypothetical scenarios to test whether BTAM works as in
Chapter 11 is unique insofar as we examine principals’ responses to a set of hypothetical scenarios about student behaviors; the goal of these scenarios is to understand whether schools’ BTAM programs are working as intended and whether principals’ reports of what their BTAM team does matches with how they respond to hypothetical scenarios.
Chapter 12 examines principals' perceptions of BTAM's impacts on safety, climate, violence, discipli
In Chapter 12, we examine principals’ perceptions of the impacts that their BTAM program is having on a variety of outcomes, including school safety; climate; violence rates; and the use of exclusionary discipline and law enforcement involvement.
Chapter 13 explores perceptions of how BTAM programs can be sustained and improved
With an eye toward the future, in Chapter 13, we explore principals’ perceptions of how schools’ BTAM programs can be sustained and improved.
Survey results used to investigate how many schools had BTAM programs as of 2024–2025
We first use our survey results to investigate how many schools nationally had BTAM programs in place as of the 2024–2025 school year
Chapter examines which school types have BTAM programs and the link to 2019 policy context
We then examine what types of schools are likely to have BTAM programs and to what extent the prevalence of BTAM programs today is at all related to what the policy context looked like in 2019.
Differences explored by whether states required, encouraged, or did not address BTAM in 2019
Specifically, we explore any potential differences in schools’ implementation of BTAM today based on whether their states required, encouraged, or did not address BTAM in the 2019 policy.
Footnote: some schools have programs not called BTAM but functionally similar
Some schools maintain programs that are not explicitly called BTAM but are functionally similar BTAM programs.
Footnote: data initially cover both program types, later narrowing to BTAM-identified programs
We initially present data that cover both types of programs but will later narrow to discuss only those programs that our respondents specifically identified as BTAM.
Figure 2.1 note: survey item on having a BTAM team or other formal group at school or district
“During this school year (2024–2025), does your school or school district have a behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) team or any other formal group of persons tasked with identifying and assessing students who might be at risk for violent or harmful behavior (toward themselves or others)?”
Figure 2.1 note: survey item on whether the BTAM team is housed at school or district level
“Is the BTAM team(s) housed at the school or district level, or both?”
Figure 2.1 note: survey item on whether an outside BTAM team serves the school
“Some schools are served by BTAM teams external to a school or district. These teams may be managed by a community organization; a local, county, state, or federal government entity; a law enforcement agency; or other organizations. Is your school served by an outside BTAM team?”
Figure 2.1 note: survey item on a school-based team not called BTAM; N = 1,746
“Does your school have a school-based team that makes decisions regarding serious student behavioral concerns that is not referred to as a behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) team? This could be a team associated with a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) or positive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) that makes decisions about individualized interventions for serious behavioral concerns” (N = 1,746)
Figure 2.1 note: principals answering Don’t know were counted as a no
For principals who responded to the above items with “Don’t know,” we counted their school as a “no.”
Figure 2.1 note: one hundred boxes represent the U.S. population of public schools
One hundred boxes are used to represent the U.S. population of public schools.
Figure 2.1 note: percentages and shading may not align or sum to 100 because of rounding
Percentages and shading may not align or sum to 100 because of rounding.
External BTAM teams are not a primary focus, so limited information is available
Because these external BTAM teams are not a primary focus of this report, we have limited information available about them and how schools engage with them.
Footnote: 2019 compilation was the most up-to-date comprehensive source at sampling time
The 2019 compilation of law and policy was the most up-to-date source of comprehensive information on BTAM requirements nationally at the time of survey sampling and planning
Footnote: the Child Trends/NASBE authors focused on threat assessment, a broader category than BTAM
Note that the authors of this study were focused on threat assessment, which is a somewhat broader category than behavioral threat assessment and management as currently defined.
Figure 2.2 note: survey item on having a BTAM team or other formal group at school or district
“During this school year (2024–2025), does your school or school district have a behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) team or any other formal group of persons tasked with identifying and assessing students who might be at risk for violent or harmful behavior (toward themselves or others)?”
Figure 2.2 note: survey item on whether the BTAM team is housed at school or district level
“Is the BTAM team(s) housed at the school or district level, or both?”
Figure 2.2 note: survey item on whether an outside BTAM team serves the school
“Some schools are served by BTAM teams external to a school or district. These teams may be managed by a community organization; a local, county, state, or federal government entity; a law enforcement agency; or other organizations. Is your school served by an outside BTAM team?”
Figure 2.2 note: survey item on a school-based team not called BTAM; N = 1,746
“Does your school have a school-based team that makes decisions regarding serious student behavioral concerns that is not referred to as a behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) team? This could be a team associated with a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) or positive behavioral intervention system (PBIS) that makes decisions about individualized interventions for serious behavioral concerns” (N = 1,746)
Figure 2.2 note: principals answering Don’t know were counted as a no
For principals who responded to the above items, “Don’t know,” we counted their school as a “no.”
Figure 2.2 note: one hundred boxes represent the schools in each state policy context
One hundred boxes are used to represent the population of public schools in each state policy context.
Figure 2.2 note: percentages and shading may not align or sum to 100 because of rounding
Percentages and shading may not align or sum to 100 because of rounding.
Figure 2.3 note: survey item on having a BTAM team or other formal group at school or district
“During this school year (2024–2025), does your school or school district have a behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) team or any other formal group of persons tasked with identifying and assessing students who might be at risk for violent or harmful behavior (toward themselves or others)?”
Figure 2.3 note: survey item on a school-based team not called BTAM; N = 1,746
“Does your school have a school-based team that makes decisions regarding serious student behavioral concerns that is not referred to as a behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) team? This could be a team associated with a multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) or positive behavioral intervention system (PBIS) that makes decisions about individualized interventions for serious behavioral concerns” (N = 1,746)
Figure 2.3 note: bars may not sum to totals because of rounding
Bars may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Principals asked in January 2025 when their BTAM or similar team was formed
We asked principals in January 2025 when their school’s BTAM team (or alternative school-based team that functions similarly to a BTAM team) was formed.
Figure 3.1 survey question: how many school years the BTAM team has been in place (n = 1,505)
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Approximately how many school years has this BTAM team been in place?” (n = 1,505).
Effective long-term program management requires processes to adjust the program over time
Because almost no program is implemented perfectly from the start, and local contexts often change over time in response to shifting circumstances and student needs, effective long-term program management requires integrating processes and activities designed to adjust the program over time to maintain or to improve performance (see discussion in Cook et al., 2019).
Survey asked how schools adjusted their selected BTAM models during initial implementation
We probed this process of adaptation in survey questions that asked about how schools had adjusted their selected BTAM models during the initial implementation phase.
Effective implementation requires processes to identify issues and opportunities
Effective implementation requires processes and activities that can help identify issues and opportunities to improve program performance as they arise.
Teams must identify specific actions and have processes to implement change
It also requires teams to identify specific actions in response to these identified issues or opportunities and have processes in place to implement change.
Later discussion covers changes since implementation, current challenges, continuous improvement
The discussion then shifts to the changes that schools have made to their BTAM efforts since implementation, challenges they told us they are facing, and the processes they have built into their programs to support continuous improvement efforts.
"Working well" question asked of principals present at implementation who saw program as effective
We asked those principals involved in the initial implementation of a specific BTAM program and who perceived that the BTAM program was working effectively at their schools how long it took them to get the BTAM program to the point of “working well.”
Section discusses schools' challenges when first implementing their chosen BTAM program
In this section, we discuss the extent to which schools told us that they experienced challenges when first implementing their chosen BTAM program.
Table 3.1 survey question: agreement with positive BTAM implementation statements (n = 450)
This table depicts response data from the following survey question: “The following table includes a number of positive statements that could describe the implementation of behavioral threat assessment and management (BTAM) in a school. Indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with each statement as a descriptor of your experience implementing BTAM in your school” (n = 450).
Figure 3.2 survey questions on effectiveness, time in place, and program use (n = 441)
This figure depicts response data from the following survey questions: “How effective do you believe this BTAM team is at maintaining school safety?” “Approximately how many school years has this BTAM team been in place?” and “How long has your school used [AUTOFILL] program?” (n = 441).
BTAM teams are not intended as the primary vehicle for lower-level concerns or routine discipline
BTAM teams are not intended to be the primary vehicle for schools to respond to lower-level behavioral or mental health concerns, signals of change in a student’s well-being (e.g., depression, bullying, declining grades), or such routine school discipline issues as classroom disruption.
cite page 38 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
Survey item: scope of threatening or concerning behavior the BTAM team responds to
We asked principals, “What is the scope of the threatening or concerning behavior to which your school or district’s BTAM team responds?”
cite page 38 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
Principals chose among eight example behaviors which, if any, would be referred to their BTAM team
We listed eight examples of threatening or concerning behavior that a student might exhibit and asked principals to select which, if any, would be referred to their school’s BTAM team.
cite page 38 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
Footnote: respondents also saw behavioral scenarios and follow-up questions on BTAM roles
We also presented survey respondents with a set of behavioral scenarios and associated follow up questions to explore how they viewed the role of their BTAM teams in response to different types of incidents.
cite page 38 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
Comparing official and BTAM-like teams shows the scope of official teams versus broader-remit teams
Comparing and contrasting the responses of schools that have official BTAM teams versus these school-based BTAM-like teams help provide some insight as to the scope of official BTAM teams compared with teams that would have a broader remit by definition.
cite page 39 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
Figure 4.1 source item and n: scope of behavior to which the BTAM team responds (n = 1,635)
This figure depicts response data from the following survey questions: “What is the scope of the threatening or concerning behavior to which your school or district's BTAM team responds?” (n = 1,635).
cite page 39 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
Figure 4.1: respondents were instructed to select all that apply
Respondents were instructed to select all that apply.
cite page 39 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?
This chapter examines BTAM policies, team membership, training, meetings and funding
We examine the policies and procedures schools have in place that are specific to BTAM, the membership structure of school BTAM teams, the training that team members receive, how often these teams meet, and how they are funded.
BTAM operations compared by team size, team level and school characteristics
Throughout our analysis, we consider how and to what extent differences in the operation of BTAM programs may be related to factors such as BTAM team size, team level (school-level only, district-level only, or both), and other school characteristics.
Chapter closes by comparing BTAM operations across states with different 2019 policy contexts
At the end of this chapter, we explore how BTAM operations differ across schools in states with different BTAM policy contexts in 2019.
Policies specific to BTAM help ensure implementation with fidelity and provide structure, consistenc
Policies and procedures specific to BTAM help ensure that the overall process is implemented with fidelity across individual cases and that policies help provide structure, consistency, and accountability.
Clear procedures help improve reliability of BTAM outcomes at student and school levels
Clear procedures for assessment and management help improve the reliability of BTAM outcomes at both the individual student level and broader school level.
Policies can specify BTAM team composition so multiple perspectives provide input
Policies can touch on various BTAM topics; some policies, for instance, will specify the composition of BTAM teams to ensure that multiple perspectives and experiences provide input into the various BTAM steps.
Team-specific policies can add formality via leadership roles, meeting structure, training requireme
Having policies specific to the BTAM team can also add a degree of formality by specifying leadership roles, details about meeting structure and regularity, and training requirements for team members.
Some BTAM policies mandate collecting data on individual cases to analyze trends
Some policies related to BTAM also mandate the collection of specific types of data about individual cases, allowing schools to analyze trends and improve their practices over time.
Chapter investigates how public schools operationalize BTAM within school safety efforts
In this chapter, we investigate how public schools are operationalizing BTAM as part of their school safety efforts.
A BTAM team should bring together individuals with different but complementary expertise
That is, a BTAM team should bring together individuals with different but complementary expertise to best assess and respond to individual referred cases and student needs.
Survey asked principals which people were BTAM team members from a list of ten roles
Our survey asked principals to indicate which people were members of their BTAM team based on a list of ten different types of roles.
Figure 5.1 note: survey question 'Which person(s) are regular members of this BTAM team?' (n = 1,408
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Which person(s) are regular members of this BTAM team?” (n = 1,408).
Note: principals were asked which staff they have at school (Table A.5)
In another survey item, we asked principals which types of staff members they have at their school, including counselors, nurses, social workers, psychologists, and law enforcement officers (see Appendix A, Table A.5).
Figure 5.2 note: survey question 'Which person(s) are regular members of this BTAM team?' (n = 1,408
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Which person(s) are regular members of this BTAM team?” (n = 1,408).
Figure 5.3 note: survey question 'Which person(s) are regular members of this BTAM team?' (n = 1,408
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Which person(s) are regular members of this BTAM team?” (n = 1,408).
Figure 5.3 note: principals directed to include school-based and external psychologists, counselors,
For psychologists, counselors, and social workers, we directed principals to include both school-based and external personnel.
Survey asked about officers' role on team and frequency of criminal justice outcomes
In our survey, we explored the involvement of law enforcement in BTAM by asking respondents about officers’ role on the team and assessing the frequency of criminal justice–related outcomes in the BTAM process (we discuss the latter in more detail in Chapters 8, 10, and 11).
Principals with law enforcement on team were asked the officers' role; five options, up to two
We listed five options and asked respondents to select up to two responses that best capture law enforcement’s involvement on their specific school teams.
Forced choice intended to focus on most important roles police play, in respondents' view
The intent in forcing a choice was to focus on the most important roles police play on these teams, in the view of respondents.
Principals with law enforcement on team were asked what role those individuals played
Specifically, we asked those principals who included either school-based or non-school-based law enforcement on their school’s BTAM team what role these individuals played on the team.
Fig 5.4 survey item: how often BTAM team members receive training (n = 1,376)
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “How often do the members of your BTAM team receive training and/or professional development related to BTAM?” (n = 1,376).
BTAM teams should meet at minimum whenever cases require; regular meetings offer further benefits
At the minimum, BTAM teams should meet whenever cases require assessment and intervention, but—even in the absence of new cases—regular meetings can provide teams opportunities for training, monitoring of ongoing interventions, and review of past cases to learn and improve over time.
Survey asked principals whether the school or district budget includes dedicated BTAM funding
We asked principals whether their school or district budget includes dedicated funding to support their BTAM program.
Fig 5.5 survey items and n = 1,408
This figure depicts response data from the following survey questions: “Does your school or district budget include dedicated funding to support your BTAM program?” “How often does your BTAM team meet?” “How often do the members of your BTAM team receive training and/or professional development related to BTAM?” “Has your school or district established written standard operating procedures (SOPs) for how your BTAM team functions on a day-to-day basis?” “Does your school or district have an explicit policy document that establishes and defines your BTAM program?” and “Which person(s) are regular members of this BTAM team?” (n = 1,408).
Survey item on model use: five named models, a model not listed, or a locally developed model
We asked schools whether they used a named model to structure their approach to BTAM, allowing them to select among a list of five named models; specify the name of a model not included in the response options; or indicate that they used a locally developed model that draws on other models and resources to fit their needs.
Respondents could also say their school used no defined BTAM model or did not know
Respondents could also indicate that their school did not use a defined model as part of their approach to BTAM or that they did not know.
Table 6.1 source item: program the team uses to structure its BTAM approach (n = 1,404)
This table depicts response data from the following survey question: “What program does this team currently use to structure its approach to BTAM?” (n = 1,404).
Survey gave principals seven possible adoption reasons and asked them to select up to three
Our survey provided principals a list of seven possible reasons for the initial adoption of BTAM at their school and asked them to select up to three that best explain their context.
cite page 54 Ch 7: Why Did Schools Adopt Specific BTAM Models?
Principals were asked about personal involvement in initial implementation of a named or local model
We asked all principals whether they were personally involved in the initial implementation of their school’s BTAM model and whether they reported using a named BTAM model or one that was locally created for their context.
cite page 54 Ch 7: Why Did Schools Adopt Specific BTAM Models?
Involved principals were asked why the school or district adopted BTAM and what steps preceded it
If they were, we asked why their school or district initially adopted a BTAM approach and about any steps the school or district may have taken prior to implementation.
cite page 54 Ch 7: Why Did Schools Adopt Specific BTAM Models?
Figure 7.1 note: main-drivers question (n = 452), select up to three
Sample (N = 452) · Principals answering the implementation drivers question
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “What were the main drivers for the implementation of your BTAM program?” (n = 452). Respondents were instructed to select up to three responses.
cite page 55 Ch 7: Why Did Schools Adopt Specific BTAM Models?
Principals were given a list of planning actions drawn from the literature on implementation
Drawing on the published literature describing how schools plan and prepare for the implementation of new programs, and the types of activities that are recommended as part of implementation efforts, we provided principals with a list of actions their school or district administrators may have taken as part of this process
cite page 55 Ch 7: Why Did Schools Adopt Specific BTAM Models?
Principals selected which listed actions applied to their school or district BTAM implementation
and asked them to select which, if any, were applicable to their school or district BTAM implementation process.
cite page 56 Ch 7: Why Did Schools Adopt Specific BTAM Models?
Figure 7.2 note: actions-before-implementation question (n = 451), select all that apply
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Which of the following actions do you know your school took before implementing its BTAM program?” (n = 451). Respondents were instructed to select all that apply.
cite page 56 Ch 7: Why Did Schools Adopt Specific BTAM Models?
Chapter examines assessment process, data sources used, and transparency
We investigate what the process looks like at schools across the country, what data BTAM teams are using to make decisions about risk of harm, and the level of transparency schools are integrating into the behavioral threat assessment process.
Table 8.1 presents four operational types and the percentage of principals choosing each
Table 8.1 presents the four operational types included in a survey question focused on the assessment process and the percentage of principals who indicated that the option best described the structure and processes of their BTAM teams.
Table 8.1 survey question on how team operates when assessing seriousness (n = 1,394)
NOTE: This table depicts response data from the following survey question: “Which of the following statements best describes how your BTAM team operates when it is assessing the seriousness of a particular student’s behavior or potential threat during a team meeting?” (n = 1,394).
The table includes only respondents whose school has a school- or district-level BTAM team
This table includes only those who said that their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
Principals were given a list of 14 potential data sources
We provided principals with a list of 14 potential data sources in our survey, ranging from interviews with students, school staff, and parents to reviewing discipline, academic, and other school records; law enforcement records; and social media accounts for referred students.
Principals were asked which sources their teams rely on and how often
We asked principals which sources their BTAM teams rely on to conduct behavioral threat assessments and how often they use these sources.
Figure 8.1 survey question on how often the team uses each source (n = 1,395)
NOTE: This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “When a student is referred to your BTAM team for concerning behavior, how often does your team use the following sources of information to assess the level of risk posed by the student?” (n = 1,395).
Figure 8.1 includes only respondents whose school has a school- or district-level BTAM team
Includes only those who said their school has a school- or district-level BTAM team.
Rows may not sum to 100 percent because of rounding
Sample (no n: a percentage change, not a share of a sample) · a percentage that is not a share of a sample (e.g. a percentage-point change or a weighted estimate of the population)
Rows may not sum to 100 percent because of rounding.
Principals were asked whether it would be feasible to transparently explain the outcome of their thr
To probe these issues, we asked principals whether they thought it would be feasible for their BTAM team to transparently explain the outcome of their threat assessment process.
Goal of intervention planning is the right mix of resources for behavioral change and safety
The goal of intervention planning is to identify the right composition of resources and supports that can prompt and sustain positive behavioral change for the student involved while also ensuring the safety of the broader school community.
cite page 62 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Principals were given four options for how their BTAM team decides on an intervention plan
We presented principals with four options for how their BTAM team might decide on an intervention or safety plan for a student assessed as posing a risk of harm and asked them to select which statement best describes their team’s process.
cite page 62 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
The chapter covers how schools select interventions and the options offered in school or by referral
In this chapter, we discuss how schools with official BTAM programs are approaching the behavioral threat management and support component of BTAM, reviewing responses about the decisionmaking process for selecting interventions and supports and the types of interventions schools are offering, both at the school and through referral to outside services.
cite page 62 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
BTAM intent: interventions that benefit the student and ensure school community safety
The intent of BTAM is to use information about the student and their behavior to determine the right types of interventions that will simultaneously benefit the student (address the concerning behavior to decrease the risk of harm) and also ensure the safety of the school community.
cite page 63 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Figure 9.1 note: survey question on use of options in intervention plans (n = 1,384)
NOTE: This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “When your BTAM team intervenes with a student who is assessed as being at some risk of causing harm to themselves or others, how commonly are the following options part of the resulting intervention or safety plan?” (n = 1,384).
cite page 65 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Survey provides insight into schools' use of suspension, expulsion, and law enforcement referral
Our survey provides insight into whether and how schools with BTAM programs in place report that they use exclusionary practices such as suspension, expulsion, and referral to law enforcement as part of their threat management processes.
cite page 66 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Chapter 11 offers further analysis of whether assessments and interventions work as expected
See Chapter 11 for additional analyses about whether BTAM assessments and interventions are working as expected in practice.
cite page 66 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Figure 9.2 note: survey questions on expulsion, school change, long suspension, and arrest or prosec
NOTE: This figure depicts response data from the following survey questions: “When your BTAM team assesses students, how frequently are students expelled, placed in a different school, or suspended for one month or more for their threatening or concerning behavior?” and “When your BTAM team assesses students, how frequently are students arrested or prosecuted for their threatening or concerning behavior?” (n = 1,379).
cite page 67 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
Survey asked about four services provided at no cost, inside or outside school
We asked whether schools provide four different types of services at no cost to students’ families either inside school or outside school through an external service provider: skill-building services, mental health counseling or care, substance use treatment, and family support and intervention programming.
cite page 67 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?
BTAM should not end once an intervention plan has been put in place
Behavioral threat management and support should not end once an intervention plan has been put in place.
cite page 70 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
Process should continue to ensure plan is carried out and reduces student risk
Instead, the process should continue to ensure that the intervention plan is being carried out appropriately and that it is successfully reducing the risk posed by a student.
cite page 70 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
Monitoring and follow-up to ensure interventions are implemented as directed are critical
Monitoring and follow-up to ensure that interventions and supports are being implemented as directed are therefore critical.
cite page 70 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
Survey item asked whether plans include measurable goals or thresholds for progress
We asked principals whether the intervention or safety plans that their BTAM teams develop include measurable goals or thresholds for student progress that then inform decisions about any required changes to the plan.
cite page 70 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
Fig 10.1 survey question on what the team does after a plan is implemented (n = 1,379)
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “Which of the following statements best describes what your BTAM team does after a student’s behavioral intervention or safety plan has been implemented?” (n = 1,379).
cite page 71 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
Principals asked what BTAM teams do as part of active monitoring of student cases (Figure 10.2)
We also asked principals what their BTAM teams are doing as part of their active monitoring of student cases (see Figure 10.2).
cite page 71 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
Fig 10.2 survey question on how team monitors progress against a plan (n = 984)
This figure depicts response data from the following survey question: “How does your school or district BTAM team monitor progress against a student intervention/safety plan?” (n = 984).
cite page 72 Ch 10: How Do BTAM Teams Monitor Intervention Plans?
BTAM interventions and supports should be tailored to the student's specific needs
The interventions and supports assigned by BTAM teams in response to concerning behavior should be tailored to the specific needs of a student identified by a team as posing a risk of harm to self or others.
cite page 74 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Survey sought to learn whether BTAM is working as intended at schools nationwide
our survey sought to understand whether BTAM is working as intended at schools around the country
cite page 74 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario questions let authors examine how schools determine BTAM boundaries and criteria
These scenario-based questions allowed us to examine in more depth how schools are determining the boundaries and criteria for their BTAM programs.
cite page 74 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Fictitious incidents are not exhaustive; an illustration of what schools are likely addressing
Note that these fictitious incidents are not meant to be an exhaustive representation of the types of safety-related incidents occurring in schools but rather an illustration of what schools are likely addressing.
cite page 75 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario E vignette: graphic drawing of a shooting in a problem-solving drawing assignment
Scenario E: In a drawing assignment that asked students to visualize different ways to solve problems, a student draws a graphic picture of someone shooting at a group of people, including details like bleeding and other physical injuries.
cite page 75 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario E vignette: teacher notes unreachable family and withdrawn, sad student
The teacher mentions previous unsuccessful attempts to contact the student’s family about their academic progress, and that the student had recently appeared withdrawn and sad in class.
cite page 75 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario D vignette: 'I am going to kill you for that' shouted, academic problems, student cried
Scenario D: A student has an intense verbal confrontation with another student at school, shouting, “I am going to kill you for that.” The student has no history of fighting or disruptive behavior but has had academic problems. A teacher who spoke with the student does not believe the threat was serious but does note that the student started crying during their conversation and would not share why they were so upset.
cite page 77 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario I vignette: repeatedly disruptive in biology class, struggling with material
Scenario I: A student is repeatedly disruptive in their biology class, talking with other students or playing on their phone. Though in a course normally taken by students one grade below theirs, the student still appears to be struggling with the material. The teacher has made attempts to correct or redirect the behavior but has been unsuccessful and reached a point where frustration is affecting the entire class.
cite page 77 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario K vignette: P.E. pushing between two students, one still angry and agitated
Scenario K: During P.E., two students begin pushing each other during a soccer activity. When the P.E. teacher approaches and tells them to stop, both back off and apologize to varying degrees. The teacher notices and is concerned that one of the students still appears angry and agitated after the fight.
cite page 77 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario A vignette: repeated class disruption, wandering and shouting for attention
Scenario A: A student is repeatedly disruptive in class, wandering the classroom, interrupting the lesson by talking to other students, and sometimes shouting loudly to get attention. The student does not respond to multiple teacher requests to stop their behavior.
cite page 79 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario N vignette: Columbine interest, laptop searches, increasingly withdrawn
Scenario N: A student notices that another student in class is especially interested in the details of the Columbine High School shooting and the personal history of the students involved. The student repeatedly brings up the attackers by name during discussions with peers and has been searching for information about the incident on their school laptop. The teacher has also noticed that the student has become increasingly withdrawn in class.
cite page 79 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario P vignette: hallway fight, bullied student with prior knife, unsecured firearms at home
Scenario P: A fight breaks out in the hallway during passing time, and student witnesses reported hearing one of the aggressors shout, “see you tomorrow for another round,” and the bullied student replying, “Fine. This ends tomorrow.” The incident involves a student who has a history of being bullied and was caught brandishing a knife (which they said they needed “to try to get all of them to stop”) last school year. An investigation determined that there were unsecured firearms in the family home.
cite page 79 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario C vignette: bus pushing altercation, smell of alcohol, other family concerned
Scenario C: A student gets into a pushing altercation with another student on the bus. After the altercation is broken up by the bus driver, the student says they were responding to having been tripped while they were walking down the aisle. During the discussion with the student, the bus driver believes he smells alcohol on the student’s breath. The parents of the other student involved in the altercation call the school the next day concerned for their child’s safety on the bus.
cite page 80 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
After each scenario the survey presented a set of possible intervention options (Table 11.2)
After presenting respondents with each scenario, the survey presented a set of possible intervention options (see Table 11.2).
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Not all interventions are appropriate for every incident
Not all interventions are appropriate for every incident.
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Principals asked which interventions the primary decisionmaker would likely take or recommend
We acknowledged this in our instructions to principals and asked them to indicate which intervention(s) the primary decisionmaker (whether or not it is the BTAM team) would likely take or recommend in response to the behavior depicted in each scenario.
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Report focuses on high-level patterns in principals’ responses
In this section, we focus on high-level patterns in principals’ responses.
cite page 81 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario E vignette: graphic drawing of shooting in a drawing assignment
Scenario E: In a drawing assignment that asked students to visualize different ways to solve problems, a student draws a graphic picture of someone shooting at a group of people, including details like bleeding and other physical injuries.
cite page 83 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario E: teacher reports unsuccessful attempts to contact family; student withdrawn and sad
The teacher mentions previous unsuccessful attempts to contact the student’s family about their academic progress, and that the student had recently appeared withdrawn and sad in class.
cite page 83 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Authors expected greatest divergence between least severe and most severe scenarios
We expected to observe the greatest divergence in responses across the least severe and most severe scenarios.
cite page 83 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Comparing least and most severe responses illuminates how responses change as concern rises
Comparing and contrasting how schools respond to the least and most severe incidents help illuminate how schools’ responses change as incidents become more serious and concerns about the safety of the student and school community also therefore increase.
cite page 83 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Figure 11.4 contrasts similarities and differences in responses to different situations
Figure 11.4 draws a contrast between the similarities and differences across school responses to different situations.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario A vignette: repeatedly disruptive student wanders, interrupts and shouts
Scenario A: A student is repeatedly disruptive in class, wandering the classroom, interrupting the lesson by talking to other students, and sometimes shouting loudly to get attention.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario A: student does not respond to multiple teacher requests to stop
The student does not respond to multiple teacher requests to stop their behavior.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario H vignette: history of fights with other students and classroom disruption
Scenario H: A student has a history of getting into fights with other students at school and being generally disruptive in the classroom.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario H: student complained of being singled out and bullied by classmates
Earlier this year, the student complained about being singled out and bullied by many other members of the class.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario H: student caught bringing a knife to school; firearms in family home
The student was later caught bringing a knife to school, explaining it was “for protection,” and an investigation determined that there were firearms in the family home.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario H: after playground fight, student yells threat and warns a classmate
After a fight on the playground with a classmate, the student yells that “he’d be sorry” and warned another classmate that “they shouldn’t come to school tomorrow.”
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario I vignette: repeatedly disruptive in biology class, talking and on phone
Scenario I: A student is repeatedly disruptive in their biology class, talking with other students or playing on their phone.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario I: student in course normally taken one grade below appears to struggle
Though in a course normally taken by students one grade below theirs, the student still appears to be struggling with the material.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario I: teacher’s attempts to redirect unsuccessful; frustration affecting whole class
The teacher has made attempts to correct or redirect the behavior but has been unsuccessful, and reached a point where frustration is affecting the entire class.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario P vignette: hallway fight with shouted exchange about tomorrow
Scenario P: A fight breaks out in the hallway during passing time, and student witnesses reported hearing one of the aggressors shout, “see you tomorrow for another round,” and the bullied student replying, “Fine. This ends tomorrow.”
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario P: student with history of being bullied caught brandishing a knife last year
The incident involves a student who has a history of being bullied and was caught brandishing a knife (which they said they needed “to try to get all of them to stop”) last school year.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Scenario P: investigation found unsecured firearms in the family home
An investigation determined that there were unsecured firearms in the family home.
cite page 84 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Authors examined how many of the 16 interventions schools would use per scenario
we examined how many interventions (out of the 16 total that we asked about) schools would use to address each scenario.
cite page 86 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Schools typically use multiple interventions, raising the question of which compose the response
Because schools typically use multiple interventions to respond to an incident, this raises questions about what specific interventions tend to compose the list of actions that schools take in response to an incident.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Analysis allows weighing support-focused against restrictive options across scenarios
This analysis allows one to consider the balance of interventions (e.g., between support-focused and restrictive options) and how that balance might differ across scenarios.
cite page 87 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Footnote on restrictive share: discussed in greater detail in Figure 11.6
We discuss this in greater detail in Figure 11.6.
cite page 88 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Reasons exist to limit exclusionary discipline unless removal is necessary for near-term safety,...
the desire to keep students in school means that there are appropriate reasons to limit the use of exclusionary discipline, unless removing a student from school is necessary to ensure the near-term safety, functioning, or well-being of the school community.
cite page 89 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
BTAM is not synonymous with discipline; misuse concerns are often about implementation fidelity
However, BTAM is not synonymous with discipline, and concerns about misuse are often more about implementation fidelity than about BTAM as a violence prevention approach more generally.
cite page 89 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Response to critiques: such outcomes are counter to what (sentence continues on next page)
The response to these critiques is that such outcomes are counter to what
cite page 89 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
A BTAM program that increases exclusionary discipline or student arrests is “doing BTAM wrong”
In essence, a BTAM program that is leading to the increased use of exclusionary discipline or more student arrests is “doing BTAM wrong.”
cite page 91 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Answering whether BTAM achieves its dual goals requires hard data on post-BTAM outcomes and...
Definitively answering questions about such outcomes and determining whether BTAM is achieving its dual goals of keeping schools safe while also using supportive intervention to change student behavior and reducing the need for suspension, expulsion, and criminal justice action requires hard data (on both student outcomes post-BTAM and what response would have looked like in the absence of a BTAM at school).
cite page 91 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
It is worthwhile to consider what national survey data say about whether schools are “doing BTAM...
Therefore, it is worthwhile to consider what our national-level survey data can say about whether schools are “doing BTAM right” as a complementary approach.
cite page 91 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
How much criminal justice involvement is “too much” is a policy question determined case by case
Naturally, how much criminal justice involvement is “too much” in any particular case is fundamentally a policy question and also must be determined individually on a case-by-case basis.
cite page 91 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?
Survey captured only principals' perceptions, not actual effects on crime or violence
Note that our survey did not attempt to capture actual effects on such outcomes as school crime or violence rates and only captures principals’ perceptions of these issues.
cite page 94 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Survey also asked whether BTAM program affected student and staff feelings of safety at school
We also asked principals whether they believe that their BTAM program affected student and staff perceptions of feeling safe at school.
cite page 95 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Survey question did not define a specific threshold across response options
Setting aside that our survey question did not define a specific threshold across response options
cite page 97 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
BTAM program not intended to increase exclusionary discipline; encourages supportive interventions
A BTAM program is not intended to increase the use of exclusionary discipline or criminal justice responses; instead, the approach encourages supporting interventions matched to individual student needs.
cite page 98 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Principals estimated BTAM impact on exclusionary discipline and on disparities across student groups
We asked principals to estimate the impact of their BTAM program on the level of exclusionary discipline (suspensions and expulsions) at their school and on rates at which such practices might affect different student groups.
cite page 98 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?
Several factors must be in place to ensure the sustainability of BTAM programs
Several factors must be in place to ensure the sustainability of BTAM programs.
cite page 100 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Buy-in, ongoing support, belief the program works, and turnover resilience are especially critical
Buy-in and ongoing support from the school community, belief across multiple groups—leaders, staff, parents, and students—that the program is working to improve school safety, and resilience to staff turnover are especially critical.
cite page 100 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Key element of long-term BTAM effectiveness is processes to identify and address challenges
A key element of BTAM program effectiveness over the long term is incorporating processes to identify challenges and take steps to address challenges and improve performance over time.
cite page 102 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
BTAM teams need a process to identify issues and opportunities for change to improve over time
BTAM teams need a process to identify ongoing issues or opportunities for change with an eye toward improving performance if they want to get better over time; teams that do not proactively seek out such issues or opportunities will likely miss chances to improve outcomes related to BTAM.
cite page 104 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time
Schools should shift focus from BTAM adoption to implementation fidelity and refining practices
The rapid growth in schools’ use of BTAM and widespread adoption suggest that schools should shift their focus from BTAM adoption to implementation fidelity and refining practices to ensure consistent and effective implementation.
Ongoing support will be critical for institutionalizing best practices and sustainability
As schools move beyond establishing BTAM programs, ongoing support will be critical for institutionalizing best practices and building capacity for program sustainability.
Need for greater coherence guiding schools to evidence-based practices with fidelity
In this sense, our results highlight the need for greater coherence in guiding schools toward evidence-based practices that are adaptable to local contexts but maintain fidelity to proven frameworks.
Inconsistency underscores need for clearer tools and resources for systematic team operations
This inconsistency underscores the need for clearer tools and resources to help schools establish systematic and effective team operations.
Schools would benefit from clearer guidance and best practices for effective, fair interventions
Schools would benefit from clearer guidance and best practices to ensure that interventions are implemented effectively and fairly.
Appendix A gives basic frequency tabulations for the survey items analyzed in the report
In this appendix, we provide basic frequency tabulations for survey items included on the survey that we analyze in this report.
Scenario question 1: who is most likely to make the initial decision about responding
Which person or group is most likely to make the initial decision about how to respond to this student’s behavior?
Scenario question 2: what actions would this person or group likely take or recommend
Below is a list containing a wide variety of options schools can use to respond to concerning student behaviors, depending on their seriousness. Most incidents would involve only a subset of these options. What action(s) would this person or group at your school likely take or recommend in response to this student’s behavior?
Scenario question 3: would the BTAM team(s) serving your school be made aware
Would the BTAM team(s) serving your school be made aware of this student’s behavior?
Scene A | Low | Elementary: a student repeatedly disruptive in class, wandering, interrupting, and s
A | Low | Elementary | A student is repeatedly disruptive in class, wandering the classroom, interrupting the lesson by talking to other students, and sometimes shouting loudly to get attention. The student does not respond to multiple teacher requests to stop their behavior.
Scene B | Low | Elementary: a student who regularly disrupts class (not considered threatening by te
B | Low | Elementary | A student regularly engages in disruptive behavior during class, but their teachers do not consider their behavior threatening. Last school year, the family declined staff suggestions that the student might benefit from supports for neurodiverse learners. This school year, the student’s behavior has escalated, and the student is involved in a physical altercation with another student that does not result in injuries.
Scene C | Medium | Elementary: a pushing altercation on the bus, the student saying they were trippe
C | Medium | Elementary | A student gets into a pushing altercation with another student on the bus. After the altercation is broken up by the bus driver, the student says they were responding to having been tripped while they were walking down the aisle. During the discussion with the student, the bus driver believes they smell alcohol on the student’s breath. The parents of the other student involved in the altercation call the school the next day concerned for their child’s safety on the bus.
Scene D | Medium | Elementary: a student shouting “I am going to kill you for that” at another stude
D | Medium | Elementary | A student has an intense verbal confrontation with another student at school, shouting, “I am going to kill you for that.” The student has no history of fighting or disruptive behavior but has had academic problems. A teacher who spoke with the student does not believe the threat was serious but does note that the student started crying during their conversation and would not share why they were so upset.
Scene E | Medium | Elementary: a student's drawing assignment depicting someone shooting at a group
E | Medium | Elementary | In a drawing assignment that asked students to visualize different ways to solve problems, a student draws a graphic picture of someone shooting at a group of people, including details like bleeding and other physical injuries. The teacher mentions previous unsuccessful attempts to contact the student’s family about their academic progress, and that the student had recently appeared withdrawn and sad in class.
Scene F | Medium | Elementary: a student with a history of emotional outbursts, non-compliance and d
F | Medium | Elementary | A student has a history of emotional outbursts and non-compliance with directions, including behaviors involving misuse of and damage to school property (e.g., pushing books off shelves, throwing objects). After a teacher attempts to redirect the behavior and takes their materials away, the student shouts, “You will be sorry tomorrow you did that.” The school established there were firearms in the home when responding to past behavioral incidents involving same student.
Scene G | Medium | Elementary: a peer reporting a student repeatedly writing disturbing notes, incre
G | Medium | Elementary | A peer reports that a fellow student has been repeatedly writing them disturbing notes. The student continues to send the notes after having been asked to stop and does not seem concerned about the effects they have been having on the other student. The notes have become more concerning over time, including descriptions of inappropriate contact, but do not include any explicit threats. The student is known to come from an unstable home environment, and the school became aware last year that the student was making repeated comments to their peers about a recent school shooting.
Scene H | High | Elementary: a student with a history of fights and disruption who complained of bei
H | High | Elementary | A student has a history of getting into fights with other students at school and being generally disruptive in the classroom. Earlier this year, the student complained about being singled out and bullied by many other members of the class. The student was later caught bringing a knife to school, explaining it was “for protection,” and an investigation determined that there were firearms in the family home. After a fight on the playground with a classmate, the student yells that “he’d be sorry” and warned another classmate that “they shouldn’t come to school tomorrow.”
Scene I | Low | Secondary: a student repeatedly disruptive in biology class, talking or playing on t
I | Low | Secondary | A student is repeatedly disruptive in their biology class, talking with other students or playing on their phone. Though in a course normally taken by students one grade below theirs, the student still appears to be struggling with the material. The teacher has made attempts to correct or redirect the behavior but has been unsuccessful and reached a point where frustration is affecting the entire class.
Scene J | Medium | Secondary: a student who regularly misses and is late to class, talks back aggres
J | Medium | Secondary | A student regularly misses classes and is repeatedly late to class. The student talks back to teachers in an aggressive tone when they are confronted about their tardiness and absences. After hearing breaking glass in a school bathroom, a hall monitor checks in to find a broken beer bottle on the bathroom floor; the student had just been seen exiting the bathroom.
Scene K | Medium | Secondary: two students pushing each other during a P.E. soccer activity who back
K | Medium | Secondary | During P.E., two students begin pushing each other during a soccer activity. When the P.E. teacher approaches and tells them to stop, both back off and apologize to varying degrees. The teacher notices and is concerned that one of the students still appears angry and agitated after the fight.
Scene L | Medium | Secondary: a student showing a pocketknife to other students in the hallway, sayi
L | Medium | Secondary | A teacher observes a student in the hallway between classes showing off a pocketknife to a group of other students. When questioned, the student replies they only wanted to show their new knife to their friends. No other students present at the time report that the student made threats or engaged in other concerning behavior. The student voluntary relinquishes the knife to the teacher when asked.
Scene M | Medium | Secondary: a student with a 504 plan who distracts peers and rarely completes ass
M | Medium | Secondary | A student regularly distracts peers with side conversations during class and rarely completes assignments despite having a 504 plan for additional academic support. After sustained disruptive behavior, the teacher moves the student to another seat in the classroom, which causes the student to complain they were treated unfairly. The teacher is asked to come to the office to discuss the situation with the student and school staff, at which point the student begins yelling profanities at the teacher. Last year, the student needed to be restrained after becoming violent with a teacher during a school field trip.
Scene N | Medium | Secondary: a student noticing another student especially interested in the Columb
N | Medium | Secondary | A student notices that another student in class is especially interested in the details of the Columbine High School shooting and the personal history of the students involved. The student repeatedly brings up the attackers by name during discussions with peers and has been searching for information about the incident on their school laptop. The teacher has also noticed that the student has become increasingly withdrawn in class.
Scene O | Medium | Secondary: a classmate reporting that a student is connected to a social media ac
O | Medium | Secondary | A classmate reports that another student at school is connected to a social media account that has posted threats targeting the school. A review of the account finds posts with pictures of weapons, discussions of grievances justifying violence, and indicators the author may be suicidal. The posts do not include specific details of planned violence but do carry an increasingly urgent and desperate tone. The student has also become increasingly isolated at school, and their grades have dropped. No information other than the classmate’s word connects the student to the account.
Scene P | High | Secondary: a hallway fight where an aggressor shouted “see you tomorrow for another
P | High | Secondary | A fight breaks out in the hallway during passing time, and student witnesses reported hearing one of the aggressors shout, “see you tomorrow for another round,” and the bullied student replying, “Fine. This ends tomorrow.” The incident involves a student who has a history of being bullied and was caught brandishing a knife (which they said they needed “to try to get all of them to stop”) last school year. An investigation determined that there were unsecured firearms in the family home.
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