American Association for Public Opinion Research, Standard Definition: Final Dispositions of Case Co
American Association for Public Opinion Research, Standard Definition: Final Dispositions of Case Codes and Outcome Rates for Surveys, 2023.
NCIER®
References
Report pages 158–161: 58 claims on pp. 158–160 (evidence 58).
Claims in this section
Blad, Evie, “A State Mandated School Threat Assessment. Here’s What It Meant for Students,” Educatio
Blad, Evie, “A State Mandated School Threat Assessment. Here’s What It Meant for Students,”
Bohanon, Hank, Lisa Caputo Love, and Kelly Morrissey, Implementing Systematic Interventions: A Guide
Bohanon, Hank, Lisa Caputo Love, and Kelly Morrissey, Implementing Systematic Interventions: A Guide for Secondary School Teams, Routledge, 2020.
Burr, Riley, Jana Kemp, Ke Wang, and Deanne Swan, Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Pu
Burr, Riley, Jana Kemp, Ke Wang, and Deanne Swan, Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Public Schools: Findings from the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2021–2022, U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2024-043, January 2024.
Carver-Thomas, Desiree, and Linda Darling-Hammond, Teacher Turnover: Why It Matters and What We Can
Carver-Thomas, Desiree, and Linda Darling-Hammond, Teacher Turnover: Why It Matters and What We Can Do About It, Learning Policy Institute, August 2017.
Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports, Instructional and Restorative Alternatives t
Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions & Supports, Instructional and Restorative Alternatives to Exclusionary Discipline: A Guide to Implementing the Five Components of the Inclusive Skill-Building Learning Approach (ISLA), July 2023.
Child Trends and NASBE—See Child Trends and National Association of State Boards of Education.
Child Trends and NASBE—See Child Trends and National Association of State Boards of Education.
Child Trends and National Association of State Boards of Education, “State Policies That Support Hea
Child Trends and National Association of State Boards of Education, “State Policies That Support Healthy Schools,”
Cook, Clayton R., Aaron R. Lyon, Jill Locke, Thomas Waltz, and Byron J. Powell, “Adapting a Compilat
Cook, Clayton R., Aaron R. Lyon, Jill Locke, Thomas Waltz, and Byron J. Powell, “Adapting a Compilation of Implementation Strategies to Advance School-Based Implementation Research and Practice,”
Cornell, Dewey G., “Threat Assessment as a School Violence Prevention Strategy,” Criminology & Publi
Cornell, Dewey G., “Threat Assessment as a School Violence Prevention Strategy,”
Cornell, Dewey G., Korrie Allen, and Xitao Fan, “A Randomized Controlled Study of the Virginia Stude
Cornell, Dewey G., Korrie Allen, and Xitao Fan, “A Randomized Controlled Study of the Virginia Student Threat Assessment Guidelines in Kindergarten Through Grade 12,”
Cornell, Dewey, Jennifer L. Maeng, Anna Grace Burnette, Yuane Jia, Francis Huang, Timothy Konold, Po
Cornell, Dewey, Jennifer L. Maeng, Anna Grace Burnette, Yuane Jia, Francis Huang, Timothy Konold, Pooja Datta, Marisa Malone, and Patrick Meyer, “Student Threat Assessment as a Standard School Safety Practice: Results from a Statewide Implementation Study,”
Cornell, Dewey G., Jennifer Maeng, Sonja Winter, Francis Huang, Tim G. Konold, Jordan Kerere, Kelvin
Cornell, Dewey G., Jennifer Maeng, Sonja Winter, Francis Huang, Tim G. Konold, Jordan Kerere, Kelvin Afolabi, and Deanne Cowley, “Behavioral Threat Assessment and Equity in Exclusionary School Discipline,”
Crepeau-Hobson, Franci, and Nancy Leech, “Disciplinary and Nondisciplinary Outcomes of School-Based
Crepeau-Hobson, Franci, and Nancy Leech, “Disciplinary and Nondisciplinary Outcomes of School-Based Threat Assessment in Colorado Schools,”
Diliberti, Melissa, Michael Jackson, Jana Kemp, and Rachel Hansen, Crime, Violence, Discipline, and
Diliberti, Melissa, Michael Jackson, Jana Kemp, and Rachel Hansen, Crime, Violence, Discipline, and Safety in U.S. Public Schools: Findings from the School Survey on Crime and Safety: 2015–16, National Center for Education Statistics, NCES 2017-122, July 2017.
Education Resource Strategies, “Examining School-Level Teacher Turnover Trends (2021–2024): A New An
Education Resource Strategies, “Examining School-Level Teacher Turnover Trends (2021–2024): A New Angle on a Pervasive Issue,”
Fein, Robert A., Bryan Vossekuil, William S. Pollack, Randy Borum, William Modzeleski, and Marisa Re
Fein, Robert A., Bryan Vossekuil, William S. Pollack, Randy Borum, William Modzeleski, and Marisa Reddy, Threat Assessment in Schools: A Guide to Managing Threatening Situations and to Creating Safe School Climates, U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education, May 2002.
Florida Department of Education, Florida Harm Prevention and Threat Management Manual, Florida Admin
Florida Department of Education, Florida Harm Prevention and Threat Management Manual, Florida Administrative Code 6A-1.0019, August 19, 2025.
Higgins, Lori, “Whitmer Signs School Safety Legislation into Law,” Chalkbeat, January 22, 2025.
Higgins, Lori, “Whitmer Signs School Safety Legislation into Law,”
Huang, Francis L., and Dewey G. Cornell, “Teacher Support for Zero Tolerance Is Associated with High
Huang, Francis L., and Dewey G. Cornell, “Teacher Support for Zero Tolerance Is Associated with Higher Suspension Rates and Lower Feelings of Safety,”
Jackson, Brian A., Melissa Kay Diliberti, Pauline Moore, and Heather L. Schwartz, Teachers’ Views on
Jackson, Brian A., Melissa Kay Diliberti, Pauline Moore, and Heather L. Schwartz, Teachers’ Views on School Safety: Consensus on Many Security Measures, but Stark Division About Arming Teachers, RAND Corporation, RR-A2641-1, 2023. As of August 10, 2025:
Jackson, Brian A., Pauline Moore, Jennifer T. Leschitz, Benjamin Boudreaux, Jo Caulkins, and Shoshan
Jackson, Brian A., Pauline Moore, Jennifer T. Leschitz, Benjamin Boudreaux, Jo Caulkins, and Shoshana R. Shelton, Strengthening School Violence Prevention: Expanding Intervention Options and Supporting K–12 School Efforts in Behavioral Threat Assessment and Management, Homeland Security Operational Analysis Center operated by the RAND Corporation, RR-A2966-1, 2025. As of August 10, 2025:
Jackson, Jourdan R., and Jodi L. Viljoen, “Preventing School Violence A Review of School Threat Asse
Jackson, Jourdan R., and Jodi L. Viljoen, “Preventing School Violence A Review of School Threat Assessment Models,”
Jackson, Jourdan R., and Jodi L. Viljoen, “Preventing School Violence: A Survey of School Threat Ass
Jackson, Jourdan R., and Jodi L. Viljoen, “Preventing School Violence: A Survey of School Threat Assessment Practices, Perceived Impact, and Challenges,”
Lane, Kathleen Lynne, Holly Mariah Menzies, Wendy Peia Oakes, and Jemma Robertson Kalberg, Developin
Lane, Kathleen Lynne, Holly Mariah Menzies, Wendy Peia Oakes, and Jemma Robertson Kalberg, Developing a Schoolwide Framework to Prevent and Manage Learning and Behavior Problems, 2nd ed., Guilford Press, 2019.
Maeng, Jennifer L., Dewey Cornell, and Francis Huang, “Student Threat Assessment as an Alternative t
Maeng, Jennifer L., Dewey Cornell, and Francis Huang, “Student Threat Assessment as an Alternative to Exclusionary Discipline,”
Mahnken, Kevin, “COVID’s ‘Complicated Picture:’ Mental Health Worse, Staffing Tight, Enrollment Froz
Mahnken, Kevin, “COVID’s ‘Complicated Picture:’ Mental Health Worse, Staffing Tight, Enrollment Frozen at Nation’s Schools,”
Maryland Center for School Safety, “Behavioral Threat Assessment (BTA),” webpage, undated. As of May
Maryland Center for School Safety, “Behavioral Threat Assessment (BTA),”
McKenna, Joseph M., and Shawna R. White, “Examining the Use of Police in Schools: How Roles May Impa
McKenna, Joseph M., and Shawna R. White, “Examining the Use of Police in Schools: How Roles May Impact Responses to Student Misconduct,”
MCSS—See Maryland Center for School Safety.
MCSS—See Maryland Center for School Safety.
Meiners, Erica R., “Ending the School-to-Prison Pipeline/Building Abolition Futures,” Urban Review,
Meiners, Erica R., “Ending the School-to-Prison Pipeline/Building Abolition Futures,”
Moore, Pauline, Brian A. Jackson, Jennifer T. Leschitz, Nazia Wolters, Thomas Goode, Melissa Kay Dil
Moore, Pauline, Brian A. Jackson, Jennifer T. Leschitz, Nazia Wolters, Thomas Goode, Melissa Kay Diliberti, and Phoebe Felicia Pham, Developing Practical Responses to Social Media Threats Against K–12 Schools: An Overview of Trends, Challenges, and Current Approaches, Homeland Security Operational Analysis Center operated by the RAND Corporation, RR-A1077-5, 2024. As of August 10, 2025:
NABITA—See National Association for Behavioral Intervention and Threat Assessment.
NABITA—See National Association for Behavioral Intervention and Threat Assessment.
National Association for Behavioral Intervention and Threat Assessment, NABITA Standards for School-
National Association for Behavioral Intervention and Threat Assessment, NABITA Standards for School-Based Behavioral Threat Assessment and Management in K–12 Education, white paper, 2024.
National Center for Education Statistics, “More Than 80 Percent of U.S. Public Schools Report Pandem
Sample (no n: a percentage change, not a share of a sample) · a percentage that is not a share of a sample (e.g. a percentage-point change or a weighted estimate of the population)
National Center for Education Statistics, “More Than 80 Percent of U.S. Public Schools Report Pandemic Has Negatively Impacted Student Behavior and Socio-Emotional Development,”
National Center for Education Statistics, “Prevalence of Mental Health Services Provided by Public S
National Center for Education Statistics, “Prevalence of Mental Health Services Provided by Public Schools and Limitations in Schools’ Efforts to Provide Mental Health Services,”
National Center for Education Statistics, “School Pulse Panel: Surveying High-Priority, Education-Re
National Center for Education Statistics, “School Pulse Panel: Surveying High-Priority, Education-Related Topics: Interactive Results,”
National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments, “Texas School Discipline Laws & Regulation
National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments, “Texas School Discipline Laws & Regulations: Threat Assessment Protocols,”
National Institute on Drug Abuse, “Reported Drug Use Among Adolescents Continued to Hold Below Pre-P
National Institute on Drug Abuse, “Reported Drug Use Among Adolescents Continued to Hold Below Pre-Pandemic Levels in 2023,”
National Institute on Drug Abuse, “Residential Addiction Treatment for Adolescents Is Scarce and Exp
National Institute on Drug Abuse, “Residential Addiction Treatment for Adolescents Is Scarce and Expensive,”
National Threat Assessment Center, Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model: An Opera
National Threat Assessment Center, Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model: An Operational Guide for Prevention Targeted School Violence, U.S. Secret Service, 2018.
National Threat Assessment Center, Protecting America’s Schools: A U.S. Secret Service Analysis of T
National Threat Assessment Center, Protecting America’s Schools: A U.S. Secret Service Analysis of Targeted School Violence, U.S. Secret Service, 2019.
National Threat Assessment Center, Averting Targeted School Violence: A U.S. Secret Service Analysis
National Threat Assessment Center, Averting Targeted School Violence: A U.S. Secret Service Analysis of Plots Against Schools, U.S. Secret Service, 2021.
National Threat Assessment Center, “What Is a Behavioral Threat Assessment in School?” fact sheet, U
National Threat Assessment Center, “What Is a Behavioral Threat Assessment in School?”
NCES—See National Center for Education Statistics.
NCES—See National Center for Education Statistics.
Nekvasil, Erin K., and Dewey G. Cornell, “Student Threat Assessment Associated with Safety in Middle
Nekvasil, Erin K., and Dewey G. Cornell, “Student Threat Assessment Associated with Safety in Middle Schools,”
NIDA—See National Institute on Drug Abuse.
NIDA—See National Institute on Drug Abuse.
NTAC—See National Threat Assessment Center.
NTAC—See National Threat Assessment Center.
Peetz, Caitlynn, “Is Student Behavior Getting Any Better? What a New Survey Says,” Education Week, J
Peetz, Caitlynn, “Is Student Behavior Getting Any Better? What a New Survey Says,”
Perera, Rachel, and Melissa Kay Diliberti, “Survey: What Purpose to Suspensions Serve? Principals Do
Perera, Rachel, and Melissa Kay Diliberti, “Survey: What Purpose to Suspensions Serve? Principals Don’t Seem Quite Sure,”
Ross, Dorie, Nathaniel von der Embse, Jessica L. Andrews, Mollie McCullough Headley, and Caroline Mi
Ross, Dorie, Nathaniel von der Embse, Jessica L. Andrews, Mollie McCullough Headley, and Caroline Mierzwa, “A Systematic Review of Threat Assessment in K–12 Schools: Adult and Child Outcomes,”
State of South Carolina, Department of Education, School-Based Behavioral Threat Assessment and Mana
State of South Carolina, Department of Education, School-Based Behavioral Threat Assessment and Management: Best Practices Guide for South Carolina K–12 Schools, 2nd ed., October 2023.
Texas School Safety Center, “School Behavioral Threat Assessment Toolkit: 2.0 Legal Requirements and
Texas School Safety Center, “School Behavioral Threat Assessment Toolkit: 2.0 Legal Requirements and Guidelines,”
Theriot, Matthew T., “School Resource Officers and the Criminalization of Student Behavior,” Journal
Theriot, Matthew T., “School Resource Officers and the Criminalization of Student Behavior,”
Virginia Department of Criminal Justice Services, Threat Assessment and Management in Virginia Publi
Virginia Department of Criminal Justice Services, Threat Assessment and Management in Virginia Public Schools: Model Policies, Procedures, and Guidelines, 5th ed., Commonwealth of Virginia, July 2023.
Vossekuil, Bryan, Robert A. Fein, Marisa Reddy, Randy Borum, and William Modzelski, The Final Report
Vossekuil, Bryan, Robert A. Fein, Marisa Reddy, Randy Borum, and William Modzelski, The Final Report and Findings of the Safe School Initiative: Implications for the Prevention of School Attacks in the United States, U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education, July 2004.
WFTS Webteam, “Florida Senate Passes Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Act,” ABC Ac
WFTS Webteam, “Florida Senate Passes Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Act,”
Wisconsin Department of Justice Office of School Safety, Wisconsin School Threat Assessment and Mana
Wisconsin Department of Justice Office of School Safety, Wisconsin School Threat Assessment and Management Protocol (WSTAMP-R 24): A Guide for Multidisciplinary Threat Assessment Teams, April 2025.
Top
Find the Perfect Training Class For You