Inferred claims

NTAC authorized to train, facilitate information-sharing, consult on cases, and promote standardizat

provide training on threat assessment and violence prevention; facilitate information-sharing among agencies with protective and public safety responsibilities; provide case consultation on threat assessment investigations and for agencies building threat assessment units; and develop programs to promote standardization of federal, state, and local threat assessment processes.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 5 part and the sentence begins on page 4 (claim p004-17). Full sentence (pages 4–5): “Through the Presidential Threat Protection Act of 2000, Congress formally authorized NTAC to conduct research on threat assessment and various types of targeted violence; provide training on threat assessment and violence prevention; facilitate information-sharing among agencies with protective and public safety responsibilities; provide case consultation on threat assessment investigations and for agencies building threat assessment units; and develop programs to promote standardization of federal, state, and local threat assessment processes.”

• NTAC Guidance
• Prevention

cite page 5 About This Report

Concerns about BTAM use for minor behavioral issues have not materialized, per principal reports

behavioral issues have not materialized, at least according to our principal reports.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 7 part and the sentence begins on page 6. Full sentence (pages 6–7): “Concerns that BTAM might be used for minor behavioral issues have not materialized, at least according to our principal reports.”

• Scope Severity Focus

cite page 7 Summary

Most schools rely on informal approaches; about half lack formal policies or SOPs

Sample (N = 1400) · Appendix A table base (respondents answering the table question; see note for tables)

Although some schools use structured processes, most rely on informal approaches, and about half lack formal policies or standard

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 7 part and the sentence continues on page 8. Full sentence (pages 7–8): “Although some schools use structured processes, most rely on informal approaches, and about half lack formal policies or standard operating procedures.”

• Assessment Process Types
• Policy
• SOPs Protocols

cite page 7 Summary

Third limitation: report does not fully explore state policy details or give an up-to-date state ana

Moreover, although the report highlights high-level differences in state-level policies and context specific to BTAM, it does not fully explore the details of such policies

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 24 part and the sentence continues on page 25. Full sentence (pages 24–25): “Moreover, although the report highlights high-level differences in state-level policies and context specific to BTAM, it does not fully explore the details of such policies and does not provide an up-to-date analysis of state policies as of this report’s publication date.”

• Limitations
• State Policy Mandates

cite page 24 Ch 1: Introduction

Nine percent of schools reported working with an external BTAM team

Sample (N = 1746) · All principals who completed the survey and received a weight (weighted to national K-12 public school principals/schools)

Nine percent of schools reported working with an

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 26 part and the sentence continues on page 27. Full sentence (pages 26–27): “Nine percent of schools reported working with an external BTAM team, as represented by the superimposed orange box in Figure 2.1.”

• External Teams

cite page 26 Ch 2: Which Schools Have Implemented BTAM?

About 80 percent of principals said BTAM teams would respond to other serious concerns

Sample (N = 1401) · Schools with an official BTAM team (Figure 4.1 official-team column; N printed in Table A.35)

About 80 percent of principals responded that their

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 38 part and the sentence continues on page 39 (claim p039-01). Full sentence (pages 38–39): “About 80 percent of principals responded that their schools’ BTAM teams would respond to other serious concerns, such as students at risk of self-harm or suicide or students with fixations on past school violence incidents or interest in violence or extremist movements.”

• Scope Severity Focus

cite page 38 Ch 4: What Is the Scope of Schools' BTAM Programs?

Figure 5.1: principals name varied school, district and outside individuals as team members

As shown in Figure 5.1, principals indicated that a variety of school- or district-based individuals (and outside individuals) from administrators to mental health providers are part of these

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 41 part and the sentence continues on page 42. Full sentence (pages 41–42): “As shown in Figure 5.1, principals indicated that a variety of school- or district-based individuals (and outside individuals) from administrators to mental health providers are part of these teams.”

• Team Composition
• Team Roles

cite page 41 Ch 5: How Are Schools Operationalizing BTAM?

Principals and counselors likely involved in even smallest teams and in virtually all teams with mor

likely to be involved in even the smallest BTAM teams and are regular members of virtually all BTAM teams with more than four or five members.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 45 part and the sentence begins on page 43. Full sentence (pages 43–45): “Principals and counselors are highly likely to be involved in even the smallest BTAM teams and are regular members of virtually all BTAM teams with more than four or five members.” Page 44 holds a callout and Table 5.1; the paragraph resumes on page 45.

• Team Roles
• Team Size

cite page 45 Ch 5: How Are Schools Operationalizing BTAM?

State-developed frameworks most often cited: Florida, Texas, and Wisconsin models

developed frameworks referenced above, most often the Florida Harm Prevention and Threat Management Model, Texas School Safety Center Threat Assessment Guidelines, and Wisconsin School Threat Assessment and Management Protocol (Florida Department of Education, 2025; Texas School Safety Center, undated; Wisconsin Department of Justice Office of School Safety, 2025).

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 53 part and the sentence begins on page 52. Full sentence (pages 52–53): “In free-text responses, some of these principals mentioned using the state-developed frameworks referenced above, most often the Florida Harm Prevention and Threat Management Model, Texas School Safety Center Threat Assessment Guidelines, and Wisconsin School Threat Assessment and Management Protocol (Florida Department of Education, 2025; Texas School Safety Center, undated; Wisconsin Department of Justice Office of School Safety, 2025).”

• Named Models
• State Models

cite page 53 Ch 6: What BTAM Models Do Schools Use?

Principals in early-mandate or early-encouragement states still cited best practice as a main reason

still saw BTAM as a best practice for violence prevention as a main reason for adoption.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 55 part and the sentence begins on page 54. Full sentence (pages 54–55): “However, a greater percentage of these principals still saw BTAM as a best practice for violence prevention as a main reason for adoption.” “These principals” are those in states that mandated BTAM early or strongly encouraged its adoption early (in 2019), per the preceding sentence on page 54.

• Adoption Reasons
• State Policy Mandates

cite page 55 Ch 7: Why Did Schools Adopt Specific BTAM Models?

51 percent of teams collect common data across all cases (sum of the bottom two rows of Table 8.1)

Sample (N = 1394) · Teams answering how the team assesses seriousness during meetings

common data across all cases (the sum of the bottom two rows).

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 59 part and the sentence begins on page 58 (claim p058-12). Full sentence (pages 58–59): “However, 79 percent of teams are using a common meeting structure (the sum of the bottom three rows in Table 8.1), and 51 percent are collecting common data across all cases (the sum of the bottom two rows).”

• Assessment Process Types
• Information Gathering

cite page 59 Ch 8: How Do BTAM Teams Assess Risk of Harm?

Half or more of principals report teams use interviews with other people every time

Sample (N = 1395) · Teams answering sources-of-information question

victims—every time they assess a student’s risk.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 60 part and the sentence begins on page 59. Full sentence (pages 59–60): “Half (or more) of principals also reported their teams use interviews with other people—witnesses, teachers, parents or guardians, and potential victims—every time they assess a student’s risk.”

• Information Gathering
• Interviews

cite page 60 Ch 8: How Do BTAM Teams Assess Risk of Harm?

Consistent with only 18 percent naming police and court records a top-two officer-member role

Sample (N = 854) · Appendix A table base (respondents answering the table question; see note for tables)

with survey responses that examined the role of law enforcement officers who were members of BTAM teams discussed previously, in which only 18 percent indicated that providing information from police and court records was one of the officer-member’s two most important roles.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 61 part and the sentence begins on page 60. Full sentence (pages 60–61): “Note that this finding is consistent with survey responses that examined the role of law enforcement officers who were members of BTAM teams discussed previously, in which only 18 percent indicated that providing information from police and court records was one of the officer-member’s two most important roles.”

• Law Enforcement
• Team Roles

cite page 61 Ch 8: How Do BTAM Teams Assess Risk of Harm?

Three-quarters of principals: BTAM program provides free mental health counseling or care

Sample (N = 1374) · Appendix A table base (respondents answering the table question; see note for tables)

mental health counseling or care to students free of charge, either at school or by placing the student in an outside program.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 68 part and the sentence begins on page 67. Full sentence (pages 67–68): “Three-quarters of principals indicated that their schools’ BTAM program provides mental health counseling or care to students free of charge, either at school or by placing the student in an outside program.”

• Free Mental Health Services
• Mental Health

cite page 68 Ch 9: How Do BTAM Teams Develop Intervention Plans?

Key behavioral elements were extracted from each scenario and summarized for ease of interpretation

For ease of interpretation, we extracted key behavioral elements captured in each scenario and summarize them in

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 74 part and the sentence continues on page 75. Full sentence (pages 74–75): “For ease of interpretation, we extracted key behavioral elements captured in each scenario and summarize them in Table 11.1.”

• Scenario Design
• Scenario Severity Levels

cite page 74 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?

Many top interventions were selected by large majorities of respondents

selected by large majorities of respondents (keeping in mind that principals could—and would be expected to—select multiple interventions that could be part of a holistic intervention plan in response to a particular incident).

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 82 part and the sentence begins on page 81. Full sentence (pages 81–82): “Many were selected by large majorities of respondents (keeping in mind that principals could—and would be expected to—select multiple interventions that could be part of a holistic intervention plan in response to a particular incident).”

• Intervention Count
• Intervention Tailoring

cite page 82 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?

Figure 11.6 shows the mean number of interventions schools reported taking per scenario

interventions that schools reported taking in response to each scenario presented.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 88 part and the sentence begins on page 87. Full sentence (pages 87–88): “Figure 11.6 shows the mean number of interventions that schools reported taking in response to each scenario presented.”

• Intervention Count
• Intervention Menu

cite page 88 Ch 11: How Are Schools Using BTAM to Respond to Student Behavior?

5 percent somewhat ineffective and another 5 percent very ineffective at maintaining school safety

Sample (N = 1406) · Teams answering effectiveness at maintaining safety

principals said they believe that BTAM was somewhat ineffective at maintaining school safety, and another 5 percent believe it to be very ineffective.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 95 part and the sentence begins on page 94. Full sentence (pages 94–95): “Meanwhile, only 5 percent of principals said they believe that BTAM was somewhat ineffective at maintaining school safety, and another 5 percent believe it to be very ineffective.”

• Effect School Safety

cite page 95 Ch 12: What Do Principals Think Are the Effects of Their BTAM Programs?

External challenges are outside team or school control, potentially explaining why hard to resolve

rather than issues directly under the control of a school BTAM team or the school more generally, potentially explaining why they may be especially difficult to resolve.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 104 part and the sentence begins on page 103 (claim p103-08). Full sentence (pages 103–104): “Importantly, these top two challenges relate to external factors rather than issues directly under the control of a school BTAM team or the school more generally, potentially explaining why they may be especially difficult to resolve.”

• Current Challenges

cite page 104 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time

38 percent of schools with large BTAM teams validate intervention options are delivered as designed

Sample (column N undeterminable) · Schools with large BTAM teams

For example, 38 percent of schools with large BTAM teams validate that specific

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 104 part and the sentence continues on page 105. Full sentence (pages 104–105): “For example, 38 percent of schools with large BTAM teams validate that specific intervention options are being delivered as designed, by appropriately trained staff, and for the amount of time recommended in an intervention plan.”

• Continuous Improvement
• Implementation Fidelity
• Team Size

cite page 104 Ch 13: Sustaining and Improving BTAM Programs over Time

Schools mostly use distinct thresholds to decide which incidents are referred to BTAM teams

distinct thresholds to determine which incidents warrant referral to BTAM teams, particularly in cases of significant concern.

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 109 part and the sentence begins on page 108. Full sentence (pages 108–109): “Both analyses revealed that schools mostly use distinct thresholds to determine which incidents warrant referral to BTAM teams, particularly in cases of significant concern.”

• Referral And Reporting
• Scope Severity Focus

cite page 109 Ch 14: Discussion and Implications

Talking about BTAM outcomes is talking about outcomes of individual, differently used approaches

It also means that talking about BTAM outcomes is really talking about the outcomes of individual approaches that schools are using somewhat differently from place to

Why inferred The sentence crosses a page break: this quote is the page 109 part and the sentence continues on page 110. Full sentence (pages 109–110): “It also means that talking about BTAM outcomes is really talking about the outcomes of individual approaches that schools are using somewhat differently from place to place.”

• Variability Of Approaches

cite page 109 Ch 14: Discussion and Implications